Burden Of A Athlete s Beauty Test - 1204 Words

Juanita Mainoo Professor Warren English 1302-59 31 October 2014 Burden Look to the left. Look to the right. Who do you see? For some people they see other human beings of all shapes and sizes going on about their daily lives. For others, those human are replaced by bars and standards by which they are comparing themselves too. This overwhelming sense to pass society’s beauty test can lead to psychological illnesses known as eating disorders. The reality is that today’s society pushes people, primarily young women, to physically push their body to the point of perfection. As a collegiate athlete there are many times in which I have seen pro-athletes and even my own teammates feel so much of that same pressure to stay competitive, in†¦show more content†¦Purging anorexia is when weight loss is achieved by vomiting or using laxatives and diuretics (Help Guide). Life for anorexia patients becomes centered on only one thought, remaining thin and losing weight, although it is never enough. This is related to why 90-95% of anorexia suffe rers are girls and women. Possessing one of the highest death rates of any mental condition, and typically appearing in the early to mid-adolescence, highlights the importance of knowing exactly what anorexia looks like before help can be offered (NEDA). Bulimia, on the other hand, is characterized by the refusal of the patient to maintain a body weight at or above a minimally normal weight for their age or height. This stems from an intense fear of weight gain. Although the exact cause of bulimia is unknown, there are many possible factors that could play a role in bulimia’s development such as biology, societal expectations, and emotional health. Just as anorexia can be divided into two categories, bulimia can be classified as either purging or non-purging. Purging incorporates regularly self-inducing vomit while a non-purging patent will use other methods to rid themselves of calories such as fasting (Mayo Clinic). In contrast to anorexia, a person suffering from bulimia is usually not underweight. In fact, many people with bulimia are overweight or obese

Ncert Physics Book Free Essays

string(256) " heat Measurement of temperature Ideal-gas equation and absolute temperature Thermal expansion Specific heat capacity Calorimetry Change of state Heat transfer Newton’s law of cooling CHAPTER 274 274 275 275 276 280 281 282 286 290 12 THERMODYNAMICS 12\." Presents NCERT Text Books NCERT Text Books: 11th Class Physics About Us: Prep4Civils, website is a part of Sukratu Innovations, a start up by IITians. The main theme of the company is to develop new web services which will help people. P rep4Civils is an online social networking platform intended for the welfare of people who are preparing for Civil services examinations. We will write a custom essay sample on Ncert Physics Book or any similar topic only for you Order Now The whole website was built on open-source platform WordPress. 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CONTENTS FOREWORD PREFACE A NOTE FOR THE TEACHER CHAPTER iii v x 1 PHYSICAL WORLD 1. 1 1. 2 1. 3 1. 4 1. 5 What is physics ? Scope and excitement of physics P hysics, technology and society Fundamental forces in nature Nature of physical laws CHAPTER 1 2 5 6 10 2 UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS 2. 1 2. 2 2. 3 2. 4 2. 5 2. 6 2. 7 2. 8 2. 9 2. 10 Introduction The international system of units Measurement of length Measurement of mass Measurement of time Accuracy, precision of instruments and errors in measurement Significant figures Dimensions of physical quantities Dimensional formulae and dimensional equations Dimensional analysis and its applications CHAPTER 16 16 18 21 22 22 27 31 31 32 3 MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 3. 1 3. 2 3. 3 3. 4 3. 5 3. 6 3. 7 Introduction Position, path length and displacement Average velocity and average speed Instantaneous velocity and speed Acceleration Kinematic equations for uniformly accelerated motion Relative velocity CHAPTER 39 39 42 43 45 47 51 4 MOTION IN A PLANE 4. 1 4. 2 4. 3 4. 4 4. 5 Introduction Scalars and vectors Multiplication of vectors by real numbers Addition and subtraction of vectors – graphical method Resolution of vectors 65 65 67 67 69 CK xii 4. 6 4. 7 4. 8 4. 9 4. 10 4. 11 Vector addition – analytical method Motion in a plane Motion in a plane with constant acceleration Relative velocity in two dimensions Projectile motion Uniform circular motion CHAPTER 71 72 75 76 77 79 5 LAWS OF MOTION 5. 1 5. 2 5. 3 5. 4 5. 5 5. 6 5. 7 5. 8 5. 9 5. 10 5. 11 Introduction Aristotle’s fallacy The law of inertia Newton’s first law of motion Newton’s second law of motion Newton’s third law of motion Conservation of momentum Equilibrium of a particle Common forces in mechanics Circular motion Solving problems in mechanics CHAPTER 89 90 90 91 93 96 98 99 100 104 105 6 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 6. 1 6. 2 6. 3 6. 4 6. 5 6. 6 6. 7 6. 8 6. 9 6. 10 6. 11 6. 12 Introduction Notions of work and kinetic energy : The work-energy theorem Work Kinetic energy Work done by a variable force The work-energy theorem for a variable force The concept of potential energy The conservation of mechanical energy The potential energy of a spring Various forms of energy : the law of conservation of energy Power Collisions CHAPTER 114 116 116 117 118 119 120 121 123 126 28 129 7 SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 7. 1 7. 2 7. 3 7. 4 7. 5 7. 6 7. 7 7. 8 7. 9 7. 10 Introduction Centre of mass Motion of centre of mass Linear momentum of a system of particles Vector product of two vectors Angular velocity and its relation with linear velocity Torque and angular momentum Equilibrium of a rigid body Moment of inertia Theorems of per pendicular and parallel axes 141 144 148 149 150 152 154 158 163 164 CK xiii 7. 11 7. 12 7. 13 7. 14 Kinematics of rotational motion about a fixed axis Dynamics of rotational motion about a fixed axis Angular momentum in case of rotations about a fixed axis Rolling motion CHAPTER 167 169 171 173 8 GRAVITATION 8. 1 8. 2 8. 3 8. 4 8. 5 8. 6 8. 7 8. 8 8. 9 8. 10 8. 11 8. 12 Introduction Kepler’s laws Universal law of gravitation The gravitational constant Acceleration due to gravity of the earth Acceleration due to gravity below and above the surface of earth Gravitational potential energy Escape speed Earth satellite Energy of an orbiting satellite Geostationary and polar satellites Weightlessness 183 184 185 189 189 190 191 193 194 195 196 197 APPENDICES 203 ANSWERS 219 CK CK CONTENTS FOREWORD PREFACE A NOTE FOR THE TEACHERS CHAPTER iii vii x 9 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS 9. 9. 2 9. 3 9. 4 9. 5 9. 6 9. 7 Introduction Elastic behaviour of solids Stress and strain Hooke’s law Stress-strain curve Elastic moduli Applications of elastic behaviour of materials CHAPTER 231 232 232 234 234 235 240 10 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 10. 1 10. 2 10. 3 10. 4 10. 5 10. 6 10. 7 Introduction Pressure Streamline flow Bernoulli’ s principle Viscosity Reynolds number Surface tension CHAPTER 246 246 253 254 258 260 261 11 THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER 11. 1 11. 2 11. 3 11. 4 11. 5 11. 6 11. 7 11. 8 11. 9 11. 10 Introduction Temperature and heat Measurement of temperature Ideal-gas equation and absolute temperature Thermal expansion Specific heat capacity Calorimetry Change of state Heat transfer Newton’s law of cooling CHAPTER 274 274 275 275 276 280 281 282 286 290 12 THERMODYNAMICS 12. 1 12. 2 Introduction Thermal equilibrium 298 299 CK CK xii 12. 3 12. 4 12. 5 12. 6 12. 7 12. 8 12. 9 12. 10 12. 11 12. 12 12. 13 Zeroth law of thermodynamics Heat, internal energy and work First law of thermodynamics Specific heat capacity Thermodynamic state variables and equation of state Thermodynamic processes Heat engines Refrigerators and heat pumps Second law of thermodynamics Reversible and irreversible processes Carnot engine CHAPTER 300 300 302 03 304 305 308 308 309 310 311 13 KINETIC THEORY 13. 1 13. 2 13. 3 13. 4 13. 5 13. 6 13. 7 Introduction Molecular nature of matter Behaviour of gases Kinetic theory of an ideal gas Law of equipartition of energy Specific heat capacity Mean free path CHAPTER 318 318 320 323 327 328 330 14 OSCILLATIONS 14. 1 14. 2 14. 3 14. 4 14. 5 14. 6 14. 7 14. 8 14. 9 14. 10 Introduction Periodic and oscilatory motions Simple harmonic motion Simple harmonic motion and uniform circular motion Velocity and acceleration in simple harmonic motion Force law for simple harmonic motion Energy in simple harmonic motion Some systems executing SHM Damped simple harmonic motion Forced oscillations and resonance CHAPTER 336 337 339 341 343 345 346 347 351 353 15 WAVES 15. 1 15. 2 15. 3 15. 4 15. 5 15. 6 Introduction Transverse and longitudinal waves Displacement relation in a progressive wave The speed of a travelling wave The principle of superposition of waves Reflection of waves 363 365 367 369 373 374 CK CK xiii 15. 7 15. 8 Beats Doppler effect 379 381 ANSWERS 391 BIBLIOGRAPHY 401 INDEX 403 CK CHAPTER ONE PHYSICAL WORLD 1. 1 WHAT IS PHYSICS ? 1. 1 What is physics ? 1. 2 Scope and excitement of physics 1. 3 Physics, technology and society 1. 4 Fundamental forces in nature 1. Nature of physical laws Summary Exercises Humans have always been curious about the world around them. The night sky with its bright celestial objects has fascinated humans since time immemorial. The regular repetitions of the day and night, the annual cycle of seasons, the eclipses, the tides, the volcanoes, the rainbow have always been a source of wonde r. The world has an astonishing variety of materials and a bewildering diversity of life and behaviour. The inquiring and imaginative human mind has responded to the wonder and awe of nature in different ways. One kind of response from the earliest times has been to observe the hysical environment carefully, look for any meaningful patterns and relations in natural phenomena, and build and use new tools to interact with nature. This human endeavour led, in course of time, to modern science and technology. The word Science originates from the Latin verb Scientia meaning ‘to know’. The Sanskrit word Vijnan and the Arabic word Ilm c onvey similar meaning, namely ‘knowledge’. Science, in a broad sense, is as old as human species. The early civilisations of Egypt, India, China, Greece, Mesopotamia and many others made vital contributions to its progress. From the sixteenth century onwards, great strides were made n science in Europe. By the middle of the twentie th century, science had become a truly international enterprise, with many cultures and countries contributing to its rapid growth. What is Science and what is the so-called Scientific Method ? Science is a systematic attempt to understand natural phenomena in as much detail and depth as possible, and use the knowledge so gained to predict, modify and control phenomena. Science is exploring, experimenting and predicting from what we see around us. The curiosity to learn about the world, unravelling the secrets of nature is the first step towards the discovery of science. The scientific method involves several interconnected steps : Systematic observations, controlled experiments, qualitative and 2 quantitative reasoning, mathematical modelling, prediction and verification or falsification of theories. Speculation and conjecture also have a place in science; but ultimately, a scientific theory, to be acceptable, must be verified by relevant observations or experiments. There is much philosophical debate about the nature and method of science that we need not discuss here. The interplay of theory and observation (or experiment) is basic to the progress of science. Science is ever dynamic. There is no ‘final’ theory in science and no unquestioned authority among scientists. As observations improve in detail and precision or experiments yield new results, theories must account for them, if necessary, by introducing modifications. Sometimes the modifications may not be drastic and may lie within the framework of existing theory. For example, when Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) examined the extensive data on planetary motion collected by Tycho Brahe (1546-1601), the planetary circular orbits in heliocentric theory (sun at the centre of the solar system) imagined by Nicolas Copernicus (1473–1543) had to be replaced by elliptical rbits to fit the data better. Occasionally, however, the existing theory is simply unable to explain new observations. This causes a major upheaval in science. In the beginning of the twentieth century, it was realised that Newtonian mechanics, till then a very successful theory, could not explain some of the most basic features of atomic phenomena. Similarly, the then accepted wave picture of light failed to explain the photoelectric effect properly. This led to the development of a radically new theory (Quantum Mechanics) to deal with atomic and molecular phenomena. Just as a new experiment may suggest an lternative theoretical model, a theoretical advance may suggest what to look for in some experiments. The result of experiment of scattering of alpha particles by gold foil, in 1911 by Ernest Rutherford (1871–1937) established the nuclear model of the atom, which then became the basis of the quantum theory of hydrogen atom given in 1913 by Niels Bohr (1885–1962). On the other hand, the concept of antiparticle was first introduced theoretically by Paul Dirac (1902–1984) in 1930 and confirmed two years later by the experimental discovery of positron (antielectron) by Carl Anderson. P HYSICS Physics is a basic discipline in the category f Natural Sciences, which also includes other discip lines like Chemistry and Biology. The word Physics comes from a Greek word meaning nature. Its Sanskrit equivalent is Bhautiki that is used to refer to the study of the physical world. A precise definition of this discipline is neither possible nor necessary. We can broadly describe physics as a study of the basic laws of nature and their manifestation in different natural phenomena. The scope of physics is described briefly in the next section. Here we remark on two principal thrusts in physics : unification and reduction. In Physics, we attempt to explain diverse hysical phenomena in terms of a few concepts and laws. The effort is to see the physical world as manifestation of some universal laws in different domains and conditions. For example, the same law of gravitation (given by Newton) describes the fall of an apple to the ground, the motion of the moon around the earth and the motion of planets around the sun. Similarly, the basic laws of electromagnetism (Maxwell’s eq uations) govern all electric and magnetic phenomena. The attempts to unify fundamental forces of nature (section 1. 4) reflect this same quest for unification. A related effort is to derive the properties of a igger, more complex, system from the properties and interactions of its constituent simpler parts. This approach is called reductionism and is at the heart of physics. For example, the subject of thermodynamics, developed in the nineteenth century, deals with bulk systems in terms of macroscopic quantities such as temperature, internal energy, entropy, etc. Subsequently, the subjects of kinetic theory and statistical mechanics interpreted these quantities in terms of the properties of the molecular constituents of the bulk system. In particular, the temperature was seen to be related to the average kinetic energy of molecules of the system. . 2 SCOPE AND EXCITEMENT OF PHYSICS We can get some idea of the scope of physics by looking at its various sub-disciplines. Basically, the re are two domains of interest : macroscopic and microscopic. The macroscopic domain includes phenomena at the laboratory, terrestrial and astronomical scales. The microscopic domain includes atomic, molecular and nuclear P HYSICAL WORLD phenomena*. Classical Physics deals mainly with macroscopic phenomena and includes subjects like Mechanics, Electrodynamics, Optics a nd T hermodynamics . Mechanics founded on Newton’s laws of motion and the law of gravitation is concerned with the motion (or quilibrium) of particles, rigid and deformable bodies, and general systems of particles. The propulsion of a rocket by a jet of ejecting gases, propagation of water waves or sound waves in air, the equilibrium of a bent rod under a load, etc. , are problems of mechanics. Electrodynamics deals with electric and magnetic phenomena associated with charged and magnetic bodies. Its basic laws were given by Coulomb, Oersted, Fig. 1. 1 chemical process, etc. , are problems of interest in thermo dynamics. The microscopic domain of physics deals with the constitution and structure of matter at the minute scales of atoms and nuclei (and even ower scales of length) and their interaction with different probes such as electrons, photons and other elementary particles. Classical physics is inadequate to handle this domain and Quantum Theory is currently accepted as the proper framework for explaining microscopic phenomena. Overall, the edifice of physics is beautiful and imposing and you will appreciate it more as you pursue the subject. Theory and experiment go hand in hand in physics and help each other’s progress. The alpha scattering experiments of Rutherford gave the nuclear model of the atom. Ampere and Faraday, and encapsulated by Maxwell in his famous set of equations. The motion of a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field, the response of a circuit to an ac voltage (signal), the working of an antenna, the propagation of radio waves in the ionosphere, etc. , are problems of electrodynamics. Optics deals with the phenomena involving light. The working of telescopes and microscopes, colours exhibited by thin films, etc. , are topics in optics. Thermodynamics, in contrast to mechanics, does not deal with the motion of bodies as a whole. Rather, it deals with systems in macroscopic equilibrium and is concerned with changes in internal energy, temperature, entropy, etc. , of the ystem through external work and transfer of heat. The efficiency of heat engines and refrigerators, the direction of a physical or * 3 You can now see that the scope of physics is truly vast. It covers a tremendous range of magnitude of physical quantities like length, mass, time, energy, etc. At one end, it studies phenomena at the very small scale of length -14 (10 m o r even less) involving electrons, protons, etc. ; at the other end, it deals with astronomical phenomena at the scale of galaxies or even the entire universe whose extent is of the order of 26 10 m. The two length scales differ by a factor of 40 10 or even more. The range of time scales can be obtained by dividing the length scales by the –22 speed of light : 10 s to 1018 s. The range of masses goes from, say, 10–30 kg (mass of an 55 electron) to 10 kg (mass of known observable universe). Terrestrial phenomena lie somewhere in the middle of this range. Recently, the domain intermediate between the macroscopic and the microscopic (the so-called mesoscopic physics), dealing with a few tens or hundreds of atoms, has emerged as an exciting field of research. 4 Physics is exciting in many ways. To some people the excitement comes from the elegance and universality of its basic theories, from the fact that few basic concepts and laws can explain phenomena covering a large range of magnitude of physical quantities. To some others, the challenge in carrying out imaginative new experiments to unlock the secrets of nature, to verify or refute theories, is thrilling. Applied physics is equally demanding. Application and exploitation of ph ysical laws to make useful devices is the most interesting and exciting part and requires great ingenuity and persistence of effort. What lies behind the phenomenal progress of physics in the last few centuries? Great progress usually accompanies changes in our basic perceptions. First, it was realised that for scientific progress, only qualitative thinking, though no doubt important, is not enough. Quantitative measurement is central to the growth of science, especially physics, because the laws of nature happen to be expressible in precise mathematical equations. The second most important insight was that the basic laws of physics are universal — the same laws apply in widely different contexts. Lastly, the strategy of approximation turned out to be very successful. Most observed phenomena in daily life are rather complicated manifestations of the basic laws. Scientists recognised the importance f extracting the essential features of a phenomenon from its less significant aspects. It is not practical to take into account all the complexities of a phenomenon in one go. A good strategy is to focus first on the essential features, discover the basic principles and then introduce corrections to build a more refined theory of the phenomenon. For example, a stone and a feather dropped from the same height do not reach the ground at the same time. The reason is that the essential aspect of the phenomenon, namely free fall under gravity, is complicated by the presence of air resistance. To get the law of free all under gravity, it is better to create a situation wherein the air resistance is negligible. We can, for example, let the stone and the feather fall through a long evacuated tube. In that case, the two objects will fall almost at the same rate, giving the basic law that acceleration due to gravity is independent of the mass of the object. With the basic law thus found, we can go back to the feather, introduce corrections due to air resistance, modify the existing theory and try to build a more realistic P HYSICS Hypothesis, axioms and models One should not think that everything can be proved with physics and mathematics. All physics, and also mathematics, is based on assumptions, each of which is variously called a hypothesis or axiom or postulate, etc. For example, the universal law of gravitation proposed by Newton is an assumption or hypothesis, which he proposed out of his ingenuity. Before him, there were several observations, experiments and data, on the motion of planets around the sun, motion of the moon around the earth, pendulums, bodies falling towards the earth etc. Each of these required a separate explanation, which was more or less qualitative. What the universal law of gravitation says is that, if we assume that any two odies in the universe attract each other with a force proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them, then we can explain all these observations in one stroke. It not only explains these phenomena, it also allows us to predict the results of future experiments. A hypothesis is a supposition without assu ming that it is true. It would not be fair to ask anybody to prove the universal law of gravitation, because it cannot be proved. It can be verified and substantiated by experiments and observations. An axiom is a self-evident truth while a model s a theory proposed to explain observed phenomena. But you need not worry at this stage about the nuances in using these words. For example, next year you will learn about Bohr’s model of hydrogen atom, in which Bohr assumed that an electron in the hydrogen atom follows certain rules (postutates). Why did he do that? There was a large amount of spectroscopic data before him which no other theory could explain. So Bohr said that if we assume that an atom behaves in such a manner, we can explain all these things at once. Einstein’s special theory of relativity is also based on two postulates, the constancy of the speed f electromagnetic radiation and the validity of physical laws in all inertial frame of reference. It would not be wise to ask somebody to prove that the speed of light in vacuum is constant, independent of the source or observer. In mathematics too, we need axioms and hypotheses at every stage. Euclid’s statement that parallel lines never meet, is a hypothesis. This means that if we assume this statement, we can explain several properties of straight lines and two or three dimensional figures made out of them. But if you don’t assume it, you are free to use a different axiom and get a new geometry, as has indeed happened in he past few centuries and decades. P HYSICAL WORLD 5 theory of objects falling to the earth under gravity. 1. 3 PHYSICS, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY The connection between physics, technology and society can be seen in many examples. The discipline of thermodynamics arose from the need to understand and improve the working of heat engines. The steam engine, as we know, is inseparable from the Industrial Revolution in England in the eighteenth century, which had g reat impact on the course of human civilisation. Sometimes technology gives rise to new physics; at other times physics generates new technology. An example of the latter is the wireless communication technology that followed the discovery of the basic laws of electricity and magnetism in the nineteenth century. The applications of physics are not always easy to foresee. As late as 1933, the great physicist Ernest Rutherford had dismissed the possibility of tapping energy from atoms. But only a few years later, in 1938, Hahn and Meitner discovered the phenomenon of neutron-induced fission of uranium, which would serve as the basis of nuclear power reactors and nuclear weapons. Yet another important example of physics giving rise to technology is the silicon chip’ that triggered the computer revolution in the last three decades of the twentieth century. A most significant area to which physics has and will contribute is the development of alternative energy resources. The fossil fuels of the planet are dwindling fast and there is an urgent need to discover new and affordable sources of energy. Considerable progress has a lready been made in this direction (for example, in conversion of solar energy, geothermal energy, etc. , into electricity), but much more is still to be accomplished. Table1. 1 lists some of the great physicists, their major contribution and the country of rigin. You will appreciate from this table the multi-cultural, international character of the scientific endeavour. Table 1. 2 lists some important technologies and the principles of physics they are based on. Obviously, these tables are not exhaustive. We urge you to try to add many names and items to these tables with the help of your teachers, good books and websites on science. You will find that this exercise is very educative and also great fun. And, assuredly, it will never end. The progress of science is unstoppable! Physics is the study of nature and natural phenomena. Physicists try to discover the rules hat are operating in nature, on the basis of observations, experimentation and analysis. Physics deals with certain b asic rules/laws governing the natural world. What is the nature Table 1. 1 Some physicists from different countries of the world and their major contributions Name Major contribution/discovery Country of Origin Archimedes Principle of buoyancy; Principle of the lever Greece Galileo Galilei Law of inertia Italy Christiaan Huygens Wave theory of light Holland Isaac Newton Universal law of gravitation; Laws of motion; Reflecting telescope U. K. Michael Faraday Laws of electromagnetic induction U. K. James Clerk Maxwell Electromagnetic theory; Light-an electromagnetic wave U. K. Heinrich Rudolf Hertz Generation of electromagnetic waves Germany J. C. Bose Ultra short radio waves India W. K. Roentgen X-rays Germany J. J. Thomson Electron U. K. Marie Sklodowska Curie Discovery of radium and polonium; Studies on Poland natural radioactivity Albert Einstein Explanation of photoelectric effect; Theory of relativity Germany 6 P HYSICS Name Major contribution/discovery Country of Origin Victor Francis Hess Cosmic radiation Austria R. A. Millikan Measurement of electronic charge U. S. A. Ernest Rutherford Nuclear model of atom New Zealand Niels Bohr Quantum model of hydrogen atom Denmark C. V. Raman Inelastic scattering of light by molecules India Louis Victor de Borglie Wave nature of matter France M. N. Saha Thermal ionisation India S. N. Bose Quantum statistics India Wolfgang Pauli Exclusion principle Austria Enrico Fermi Controlled nuclear fission Italy Werner Heisenberg Quantum mechanics; Uncertainty principle Germany Paul Dirac Relativistic theory of electron; Quantum statistics U. K. Edwin Hubble Expanding universe U. S. A. Ernest Orlando Lawrence Cyclotron U. S. A. James Chadwick Neutron U. K. Hideki Yukawa Theory of nuclear forces Japan Homi Jehangir Bhabha Cascade process of cosmic radiation India Lev Davidovich Landau Theory of condensed matter; Liquid helium Russia S. Chandrasekhar Chandrasekhar limit, structure and evolution of stars India John Bardeen Transistors; Theory of super conductivity U. S. A. C. H. Townes Maser; Laser U. S. A. Abdus Salam Unification of weak and electromagnetic interactions Pakistan of physical laws? We shall now discuss the nature of fundamental forces and the laws that govern the diverse phenomena of the physical world. 1. 4 FUNDAMENTAL FORCES IN NATURE* We all have an intuitive notion of force. In our experience, force is needed to push, carry or hrow objects, deform or break them. We also experience the impact of forces on us, like when a moving object hits us or we are in a merry-goround. Going from this intuitive notion to the proper scientific concept of force is not a trivial matter. Early thinkers like Aristotle had wrong * ideas about it. The correct notion of force was arrived at by Isaac Newton in his famous laws of motion. He also gave an explicit form for the force for gravitational attraction between two bodies. We shall learn these matters in subsequent chapters. In the macroscopic world, besides the gravitational force, we encounter several kinds f forces: muscular force, contact forces between bodies, friction (which is also a contact force parallel to the surfaces in contact), the forces exerted by compressed or elongated springs and taut strings and ropes (tension), the force of buoyancy and viscous force when solids are in Sections 1. 4 and 1. 5 contain several ideas that you may not grasp fully in your first reading. However, we advise you to read them carefully to develop a feel for some basic aspects of physics. These are some of the areas which continue to occupy the physicists today. P HYSICAL WORLD 7 Table 1. 2 Link between technology and physics Technology Scientific principle(s) Steam engine Laws of thermodynamics Nuclear reactor Controlled nuclear fission Radio and Television Generation, propagation and detection of electromagnetic waves Computers Digital logic Lasers Light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation Production of ultra high magnetic fields Superconductivity Rocket propulsion Newton’s laws of motion Electric generator Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction Hydroelectric power Conversion of gravitational potential energy into electrical energy Aeroplane Bernoulli’s principle in fluid dynamics Particle accelerators Motion of charged particles in electromagnetic ields Sonar Reflection of ultrasonic waves Optical fibres Total internal reflection of light Non-reflecting coatings Thin film optical interference Electron microscope Wave nature of electrons Photocell Photoelectric effect Fusion test reactor (Tokamak) Magnetic confinement of plasma Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope (GMRT) Detectio n of cosmic radio waves Bose-Einstein condensate Trapping and cooling of atoms by laser beams and magnetic fields. contact with fluids, the force due to pressure of a fluid, the force due to surface tension of a liquid, and so on. There are also forces involving charged nd magnetic bodies. In the microscopic domain again, we have electric and magnetic forces, nuclear forces involving protons and neutrons, interatomic and intermolecular forces, etc. We shall get familiar with some of these forces in later parts of this course. A great insight of the twentieth century physics is that these different forces occurring in different contexts actually arise from only a small number of fundamental forces in nature. For example, the elastic spring force arises due to the net attraction/repulsion between the neighbouring atoms of the spring when the spring is elongated/compressed. This net ttraction/repulsion can be traced to the (unbalanced) sum of electric forces between the charged constit uents of the atoms. In principle, this means that the laws for ‘derived’ forces (such as spring force, friction) are not independent of the laws of fundamental forces in nature. The origin of these derived forces is, however, very complex. At the present stage of our understanding, we know of four fundamental forces in nature, which are described in brief here : 8 P HYSICS Albert Einstein (1879-1955) Albert Einstein, born in Ulm, Germany in 1879, is universally regarded as one of the greatest physicists of all time. His astonishing scientific career began with the publication of three path-breaking papers in 1905. In the first paper, he introduced the notion of light quanta (now called photons) and used it to explain the features of photoelectric effect that the classical wave theory of radiation could not account for. In the second paper, he developed a theory of Brownian motion that was confirmed experimentally a few years later and provided a convincing evidence of the atomic picture of matter. The third paper gave birth to the special theory of relativity that made Einstein a legend in his own life time. In the next decade, he explored the consequences of his new theory which included, among other things, the mass-energy equivalence enshrined in his famous equation E = mc2. He also created the general version of relativity (The General Theory of Relativity), which is the modern theory of gravitation. Some of Einstein’s most significant later contributions are: the notion of stimulated emission introduced in an alternative derivation of Planck’s blackbody radiation law, static model of the universe which started modern cosmology, quantum statistics of a gas of massive bosons, and a critical analysis of the foundations of quantum mechanics. The year 2005 was declared as International Year of Physics, in recognition of Einstein’s monumental contribution to physics, in year 1905, describing revolutionary scientific ideas that have since influenced all of modern physics. 1. 4. 1 Gravitational Force The gravitational force is the force of mutual attraction between any two objects by virtue of their masses. It is a universal force. Every object experiences this force due to every other object in the universe. All objects on the earth, for example, experience the force of gravity due to the earth. In particular, gravity governs the motion of the moon and artificial satellites around he earth, motion of the earth and planets around the sun, and, of course, the motion of bodies falling to the earth. It plays a key role in the large-scale phenomena of the universe, such as formation and evolution of stars, galaxies and galactic clusters. 1. 4. 2 Electromagnetic Force Electromagnetic force is the force between charged part icles. In the simpler case when charges are at rest, the force is given by Coulomb’s law : attractive for unlike charges and repulsive for like charges. Charges in motion produce magnetic effects and a magnetic field gives rise to a force on a moving charge. Electric nd magnetic effects are, in general, inseparable – hence the name electromagnetic force. Like the gravitational force, electromagnetic force acts over large distances and does not need any intervening medium. It is enormously strong compared to gravity. The electric force between two protons, for example, 36 is 10 times the gravitational force between them, for any fixed distance. Matter, as we know, consists of elementary charged constituents like electrons and protons. Since the electromagnetic force is so much stronger than the gravitational force, it dominates all phenomena at atomic and molecular scales. (The other two forces, as we hall see, operate only at nuclear scales. ) Thus it is mainly the ele ctromagnetic force that governs the structure of atoms and molecules, the dynamics of chemical reactions and the mechanical, thermal and other properties of materials. It underlies the macroscopic forces like ‘tension’, ‘friction’, ‘normal force’, ‘spring force’, etc. Gravity is always attractive, while electromagnetic force can be attractive or repulsive. Another way of putting it is that mass comes only in one variety (there is no negative mass), but charge comes in two varieties : positive and negative charge. This is what makes all the difference. Matter is mostly electrically neutral (net charge is zero). Thus, electric force is largely zero and gravitational force dominates terrestrial phenomena. Electric force manifests itself in atmosphere where the atoms are ionised and that leads to lightning. P HYSICAL WORLD 9 Satyendranath Bose (1894-1974) Satyendranath Bose, born in Calcutta in 1894, is among the great Indian physicists who made a fundamental contribution to the advance of science in the twentieth century. An outstanding student throughout, Bose started his career in 1916 as a lecturer in physics in Calcutta University; five years later he joined Dacca University. Here in 1924, in a brilliant flash of insight, Bose gave a new derivation of Planck’s law, treating radiation as a gas of photons and employing new statistical methods of counting of photon states. He wrote a short paper on the subject and sent it to Einstein who immediately recognised its great significance, translated it in German and forwarded it for publication. Einstein then applied the same method to a gas of molecules. The key new conceptual ingredient in Bose’s work was that the particles were regarded as indistinguishable, a radical departure from the assumption that underlies the classical MaxwellBoltzmann statistics. It was soon realised that the new Bose-Einstein statistics was applicable to particles with integers spins, and a new quantum statistics (Fermi-Dirac statistics) was needed for particles with half integers spins satisfying Pauli’s exclusion principle. Particles with integers spins are now known as bosons in honour of Bose. An important consequence of Bose-Einstein statistics is that a gas of molecules below a certain temperature will undergo a phase transition to a state where a large fraction of atoms populate the same lowest energy state. Some seventy years were to pass before the pioneering ideas of Bose, developed further by Einstein, were dramatically confirmed in the observation of a new state of matter in a dilute gas of ultra cold alkali atoms – the Bose-Eintein condensate. If we reflect a little, the enormous strength of the electromagnetic force compared to gravity is evident in our daily life. When we hold a book in our hand, we are balancing the gravitational force on the book due to the huge mass of the earth by the ‘normal force’ provided by our hand. The latter is nothing but the net electromagnetic force between the charged constituents of our hand and he book, at the surface in contact. If electromagnetic force were not intrinsically so much stronger than gravity, the hand of the strongest man would crumble under the weight of a feather ! Indeed, to be consistent, in that circumstance, we ourselves would crumble under our own weight ! 1. 4. 3 Strong Nuclear Force The strong nuclear f orce binds protons and neutrons in a nucleus. It is evident that without some attractive force, a nucleus will be unstable due to the electric repulsion between its protons. This attractive force cannot be gravitational since force of gravity is negligible compared to the electric force. A new basic force must, therefore, be invoked. The strong nuclear force is the strongest of all fundamental forces, about 100 times the electromagnetic force in strength. It is charge-independent and acts equally between a proton and a proton, a neutron and a neutron, and a proton and a neutron. Its range is, however, extremely small, –15 of about nuclear dimensions (10 m). It is responsible for the stability of nuclei. The electron, it must be noted, does not experience this force. Recent developments have, however, indicated that protons and neutrons are built out of still more elementary constituents called quarks. . 4. 4 Weak Nuclear Force The weak nuclear force appears only in certain nuclear processes such as the ? -decay of a nucleus. In ? -decay, the nucleus emits an electron and an uncharged particle called neutrino. The weak nuclear force is not as weak as the gravitational force, but much weaker than the strong nuclear and electromagnetic forces. The range of weak n uclear force is exceedingly small, of the order of 10-16 m. 1. 4. 5 Towards Unification of Forces We remarked in section 1. 1 that unification is a basic quest in physics. Great advances in physics often amount to unification of different 10 P HYSICS Table 1. Fundamental forces of nature Name Relative strength Range Operates among Gravitational force 10 –39 Infinite All objects in the universe Weak nuclear force 10–13 Very short, Sub-nuclear size ( ? –16 m) 10 Some elementary particles, particularly electron and neutrino Electromagnetic force 10–2 Infinite Charged particles Strong nuclear force 1 Short, nuclear size ( ? –15 m) 10 Nucleons, heavier elementary particles theories and domains. Newton unified terrestrial and celestial domains under a common law of gravitation. The experimental discoveries of Oersted and Faraday showed that electric and magnetic phenomena are in general nseparable. Maxwell unified electromagnetism and optics with the dis covery that light is an electromagnetic wave. Einstein attempted to unify gravity and electromagnetism but could not succeed in this venture. But this did not deter physicists from zealously pursuing the goal of unification of forces. Recent decades have seen much progress on this front. The electromagnetic and the weak nuclear force have now been unified and are seen as aspects of a single ‘electro-weak’ force. What this unification actually means cannot be explained here. Attempts have been (and are being) made to unify the electro-weak and the trong force and even to unify the gravitational force with the rest of the fundamental forces. Many of these ideas are still speculative and inconclusive. Table 1. 4 summarises some of the milestones in the progress towards unification of forces in nature. 1. 5 NATURE OF PHYSICAL LAWS Physicists explore the universe. Their investigations, based on scientific processes, range from particles that are smaller than atoms in size to stars that are very far away. In addition to finding the facts by observation and experimentation, physicists attempt to discover the laws that summarise (often as mathematical quations) these facts. In any physical phenomenon governed by different forces, several quantities may change with time. A remarkable fact is that some special physical quantities, however, remain constant in time. They are the conserved quantities of nature. Understanding these conservation principles is very important to describe the observed phenomena quantitatively. For motion under an external conservative force, the total mechanical energy i. e. the sum of kinetic and potential energy of a body is a constant. The familiar example is the free fall of an object under gravity. Both the kinetic energy How to cite Ncert Physics Book, Essay examples

English Language Colleges and Universities

Question: Discuss about theEnglish Language for Colleges and Universities. Answer: Introduction The language assessment or language testing refers to the field, which study about the first, second or other languages taught in schools, colleges or universities. According to Jenkins Leung, (2013), the part of applied linguistic focuses on the assessment of the language used in the workplace context or in the citizenship, immigration and asylum contest. In general, the assessment helps the students in the schools or colleges to analyse their learning and improvement. In this essay, the language test has been evaluated through a classroom-based assessment to assess the improvements in the students understanding of skills and communication. It has two main priorities that indicate the overall impact of the learning procedures followed in the classroom. The study has discussed the various processes of language testing to analyse the students capacities and improvements to test their language learning process (Cohen, 2014). Therefore, the purpose of the classroom-based assessment has been disclosed to set the objectives of the study and then the role of teachers or assessors has been evaluated to analyse the overall testing process. Discussion The purpose of classroom-based assessment is to test the learning improvement of the students in a class whether the study procedure is helping them to improve their understanding about the lessons in class. According to Kaplan, (2015), assessments are required to develop the skills of the students about what they had learnt from the lessons in class. These assessments can be conducted in various manners and every process has its own pros and cons. Therefore, it is the responsibility of a teacher to decide which assessment process should be best for the students to measure their improvement. There are other purposes of this classroom-based assessment. It helps to inform and guide the teachers about the teaching and learning processes, helps students to set their learning goals and motivate the students for improving their skills. In thus study, the essential objectives are to analyse the effect of lessons taught in the classes on students, to evaluate their improvement in classes, t o analyse the benefits of the learning processes and to assess the effectiveness of teaching procedures in classes. Therefore, the study is focussing on the purpose of the assessments to meet these objectives. There are some processes or assessments instruments for assessing the learning improvements of the students. The students can be accessed through the activities of quizzes, writing assignments, tests and many more, which have the facility to get the outcome instantly. Therefore, this kind of assessments has proved to be effective as the teachers can easily identify the drawbacks of the students through this. As opined by Yu, (2014), the language can be learnt through formal, informal, assessed, not assessed, structured, unstructured, fun, arduous, and essential and hobby or interest. The formal setting can be in the kindergartens, language centres, schools, clubs, universities, workplaces, short courses and TAFES. In these settings, the students can be accessed through the school like environment where the content is almost set from earlier. The processes of assessments also are formal in these settings and the students are assessed based on the qualifications and accreditations. On the other hand, the informal setting is the called in the setting of homely environment where the students can learn with their family or friends or in a homely ambiance (Richards Rodgers, 2014). In these cases, the assessment process follows the interest of the students who are learning from various practical incidents rather than the formal contents that have set before. The assessments in this case will find out the effectiveness of the learning in the outcome of social connectedness and life skills. There can be another type of assessment, which focuses on the interest or fun or hobby of the learner to analyse their improvements. Therefore, the processes in which the improvement can be analysed properly of a students is perfect for the students to assess them. There are some classroom-based assessments such as, alternative, educational, authentic, informal, formative and statutory (Bygate, Swain Skehan, 2013). All these assessment processes have their individual importance. The quiz is one of the assessments processes that help to improve the practice of regular lessons through a fun activity. The teachers to reduce the stress level of the students between classes can use it. As quiz is considered as a fun game rather learning, therefore, the students find it more interesting to participate. However, it is a fun game; the teacher can assess the improvements of the students from this classroom-based assessment procedure. Apart from this, there are many ways to assess the students in classes with fun activities like quiz. Likewise, debate competition can also be used to analyse the understanding of the students about the language-based subjects such as English. On the other hand, the writing assignments can be very helpful for the students to assess their learning. If the students cannot understand the subject properly, then they cannot develop the content in writing to explain their understanding (Kunnan, 2013). Therefore, it can be used as an assessment program to analyse the students improvements through assessment. General class tests also can be the assessment process for understanding the improvement in a frequent manner. Although it is a formal process, which the students have to face in the classes and the teachers think, it can be the most effective process to assess a students whether he or she is able to learn the language in a proper way or not. Therefore, in this case the teachers have to play a crucial role to develop the questions based on which it can be analysed the students improvements. All these processes are helpful to meet the objectives in this study to get the benefit of the purposes of classroom-based assessments for language testing. There are some language assessment approaches to conduct this classroom-based assessment such as, Discrete-point testing approach, Communicative Testing Approach, Integrative Testing Approach and Performance testing approach (Knig et al., 2014). The Discrete-point testing approach is the process that can assess the students understanding about the components of language. Any language can be divided into its component parts and can be tested through the assessments like reading, writing, speaking, listening, phonology, lexicon, syntax and morphology. This discrete point tests are aiming to achieve a high reliability factor by testing a large number discrete items. In the Communicative Testing Approach, the students communication level on a particular language is tested through the teachers or assessors. In this case, the test should be conducted through the processes of listening, speaking, writing and reading. In the testing procedure, the teachers can assess the students in involvin g them into various pretending situations to test their communication levels in that Language. Therefore, it can be considered as the performance based testing approach for the language assessment. Along with this, the approach of Integrative Testing helps to put back the language skills, which were taken out from the language with discrete items (Richards Schmidt, 2013). Additionally, it helps to assess the capacity of a learner to understand the capability of the person to communicate through the language, which they are learning. Apart from this, there is another approach Performance testing approach to evaluate the performance level of learner after learning the language. The performance level can be accessed through the various testing processes to assess their improvements. According to McLaughlin, (2013), this approach has some principles such as, in this process the teachers have to state the overall goal of the performance and to analyse the performance level they have to evaluate the performance checking process and then can test the performance. This process will help the assessors to understand the improvement of the students. All these are some important approaches that help the assessors to analyse the students improvement in the learning process. The role of the assessor or the teacher plays a crucial part in the process of classroom-based assessment. The teachers have to serve internal and external responsibilities to complete the assessments processes. Monitoring the assessment processes, keeping records of the progress of students and giving the results to other teachers as well as parents and students, selection, certification and meeting statutory requirements are the main responsibilities of an assessor. As per the point of view of some of the eminent scholars, assessment is the systematic procedures based on which one individual student has been tasted as per the knowledge, skills and competencies. Only teaching and learning process is not enough for evaluating the minds of students. Students should be tasted time to time in order to know their learning progress. Teachers have to play a major role in the entire process of assessment (Allen et al., 2013). While dealing with the students within a classroom, teachers should gather detailed information regarding the problems and obstacles of the students. Based on those issues an ideal teacher should proceed for enhancing the mental skills and development of students. However, this particular essay has provided an in-depth understanding about the role of teachers for arranging the entire process of assessment effectively. As stated by Astin (2012), assessment is one of the most effective ways of data collection procedure based on which the teachers can evaluated the growth and the progress of the students. After conducting an entire class, the students may not be able to understand that the teachers have conveyed in the classroom (Reschly Christenson, 2012). Therefore, assessment is the only way, based on which teachers can get an in-depth overview about the learning improvement of every individual student equally. Before, conducting an assessment the teachers generally tend to take an effective remedial class (Treagust, 2012). In this particular class, every student within the classroom is allowed to throw any questions related to their study. This particular class is considered as interactive session where the students have to play a major role along with the teachers. After clarifying the doubt to the students, teachers tend to take an effective interaction with them. Teacher intends to ask some o f the basic questions to the students based on which they can evaluate whether students have understood or not. After conducting the remedial session, the entire process of assessment is started so that students can carry good marks. At the time of this assessment, teachers have to follow some of the major factors (Brown, Bull Pendlebury, 2013). The teachers should follow the expression of every individual student on how they are feeling comfortable with the assessment questions. If any individual students are followed uncomfortable with the assessment paper, the teacher should note the name of this individual as soon as possible. After the end of the session this particular students should be taken an effective interview session in order to know the problems individually. At the same time, some of the major factors should be taken into consideration. At the time of conducting the assessment, teachers should maintain strictness at the assessment hall. Students should not discuss with each other at the time of assessment session. All the solutions should be conducted at the own competency of the students (Crisp, 2012). However, after conducting the entire process of assessment, teachers should evaluate the data about the performance of students. The students who have performed well in the entire session should not be highlighted. Teachers should enjoy the success the achievement of student learning process. In the assessment, the students who have failed to provide an effective feedback should get more guidance and training from the teachers. The role of an ideal teacher in this particular case should be more vital (Falchikov, 2013). At the very first stage, teacher should identify the student who has failed to perform well in the assessment after collecting data. After identifying this individual, the teacher should make an effective session in order to know the problem. A friendly environment should be needed to deal with such kinds of students (Treagust, 2012). Teachers while making the face-to-face interaction should maintain a polite and humble approach to the students so that the students do not hesitate to share their point of views. The role of an ideal teacher should be providing equal respect and dignity to the students from different culture and background (Healey, 2014). While dealing with the different kinds of learners, the teachers tend to come into close contact with students from various attitudes. However, it has been observed that the students have faced immense difficulties and challenges for maintaining their learning process due to the family background. As a result, those students fail to communicate properly with the teachers at the classroom (Imrie et al., 2014). These are the major problems, due to which students fail to provide their best performance in the assessment. The teacher should deal with those students especially. One of the major roles of an ideal teacher is to provide equal priority and response to the students of every culture and background. Arranging parents teacher meeting is also been considered as one of the most effective initiatives for improving the future growth of the students. The mental and learning growth of a student is highly dependent on the family background of a particular student. After collecting sufficient data and information from the assessments, the teacher should make an effective interaction with the parents individually (Piech et al., 2013). Teachers should give an in-depth overview regarding the growth and the success of an individual. The students who have provided negative feedback on the assessment need guidance that is more effective. Therefore, parents would have to take a major initiative regarding the factor as well, so that their children can get a successful future. The role of an eminent teacher in this case is not only to convince the students, but also to make the parents understand on how their children can grow their mental skill and ability (Reschly Christenson, 2012). The paren ts should provide a good environment to their children so that they can get a sufficient time for continuing their study. Conclusion The intention of this study is to analyse the purpose of classroom-based assessment and the various processes to find the importance or usefulness of the assessment. The usefulness of these procedures has been analysed and the role and responsibilities of the assessors has been evaluated to understand the importance of language test through classroom-based assessment. However, the entire essay has provided an in-depth understanding about the importance of assessment for improving the future growth of the students. At the same time the role of teachers have also been provided equal priority in this particular study. 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